Isavuconazole use and TDM in real-world pediatric practice.

Isavuconazole (ISA) is approved for treating invasive aspergillosis and mucormycosis in adults, but its use in children remains off-label. We report on the use of ISA in real-world pediatric practice with 15 patients receiving ISA for treatment of invasive fungal infections. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) was performed in all patients, with 52/111 (46.8%) Ctrough determinations out of range, thus supporting the need for TDM in children, especially those receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO).

Evidencia científica de la duración del tratamiento antibiótico en las infecciones intraabdominales con control de foco quirúrgico / Scientific evidence of the duration of antibiotic treatment in intra-abdominal infections with surgical focus control

El aumento progresivo de las resistencias antibióticas apremia el tener estrategias para disminuir la presión sobre la microbiota. La duración del tratamiento antibiótico empírico es variable, a pesar de las recomendaciones de las guías. Se ha realizado una revisión bibliográfica de la evidencia científica publicada sobre la duración del tratamiento antibiótico empírico en las infecciones intraabdominales quirúrgicas con control de foco efectivo. Se analizan las guías americanas realizadas por Mazuski et al. de 2017 como eje central en las recomendaciones de la duración de tratamiento antibiótico empírico en infecciones intraabdominales con control del foco y se añade una búsqueda bibliográfica de todos los artículos que contuviesen las palabras claves en Pubmed y Google Scholar. Se recopilan 21 artículos referentes en la duración del tratamiento antibiótico empírico en la infección intraabdominal con control del foco. Con las guías americanas y estos artículos se ha elaborado una propuesta de duración del tratamiento antibiótico empírico en pacientes sin factores de riesgo entre 24 y 72 h. Y en los que presentan factores de riesgo se habría de individualizar el mismo con monitorización activa cada 24 h de fiebre, íleo paralítico y leucocitosis, ante una detección precoz de complicaciones o de necesidad de cambios en el espectro antibiótico. Los tratamientos cortos son igual de eficaces que los de duraciones más prolongadas y se asocian a menos tasa de efectos adversos, por tanto, ajustar y revaluar diariamente la duración del tratamiento antibiótico empírico es fundamental para una mejor praxis (AU)

A non-systematic review of the published scientific evidence has been carried out on the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment in surgical intra-abdominal infections with effective focus control. Given the progressive increase in antibiotic resistance, it is urgent to have strategies to reduce the pressure on the microbiota. The American guidelines made by Mazuski et al. of 2017, as the central axis in the recommendations of the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment in intra-abdominal infections with control of the focus and a bibliographic search of all the articles that contained the keywords in Pubmed and Google Scholar is added. 21 articles referring to the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment in intra-abdominal infection with control of the focus are collected. With the American guidelines and these articles, a proposal is prepared for the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment in patients without risk factors between 24 and 72h. And in those who present risk factors, it should be individualized with active monitoring every 24h of fever, paralytic ileus and leukocytosis, before an early detection of complications or the need for changes in antibiotic treatment. Short treatments are just as effective as those of longer durations and are associated with fewer adverse effects, therefore, daily adjusting and reassessing the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment is essential for better practice (AU)

Scientific evidence of the duration of antibiotic treatment in intra-abdominal infections with surgical focus control.

A non-systematic review of the published scientific evidence has been carried out on the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment in surgical intra-abdominal infections (IIA) with effective focus control. Given the progressive increase in antibiotic resistance, it is urgent to have strategies to reduce the pressure on the microbiota. The American guidelines made by Mazuski et al. of 20171, as the central axis in the recommendations of the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment in intra-abdominal infections with control of the focus and a bibliographic search of all the articles that contained the keywords in Pubmed and Google Scholar is added. 21 articles referring to the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment in intra-abdominal infection with control of the focus are collected. With the American guidelines and these articles, a proposal is prepared for the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment in patients without risk factors between 24 and 72 h. And in those who present risk factors, it should be individualized with active monitoring every 24 h of fever, paralytic ileus and leukocytosis (FIL), before an early detection of complications or the need for changes in antibiotic treatment. Short treatments are just as effective as those of longer durations and are associated with fewer adverse effects, therefore, daily adjusting and reassessing the duration of empirical antibiotic treatment is essential for better practice.

Factors associated with successful completion of outpatient parenteral antibiotic therapy in an area with a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria: 30-day hospital admission and mortality rates.

OBJECTIVES: To identify factors associated with hospital admission and mortality within the first 30 days after enrolment in an outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) program, also analysing adequacy of the treatment regimen and clinical outcomes. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study conducted between October 2016 and June 2017 in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Variables related to hospital admission and mortality were subjected to bivariate analysis, and those with a P<0.05 were subjected to multivariate analysis as risk factors. RESULTS: We evaluated 276 patients, of whom 80.5% were ≥60 years of age and 69.9% had more than one comorbidity. Of the patients evaluated, 41.3% had pneumonia and 35.1% had a urinary tract infection. The most common etiological agent, isolated in 18 (31.6%) cases, was Klebsiella pneumoniae, and 13 (72,2%) strains were carbapenem resistant. The OPAT was in accordance with the culture results in 76.6% of the cases and with the institutional protocols in 76.4%. The majority (64.5%) of the patients were not admitted, and a cure or clinical improvement was achieved in 78.6%. Multivariate analysis showed that, within the first 30 days after enrolment, the absence of a physician office visit was a predictor of hospital admission (P<0.001) and mortality (P = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated the viability of OPAT in elderly patients with pulmonary or urinary tract infections in an area with a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria and that a post-discharge physician office visit is protective against hospital admission and mortality.

An investigation of cross-reactivity between the poultry red mite and house dust and storage mites in dogs with contact with chickens infested with red mites.

BACKGROUND: The European poultry red mite (PRM) Dermanyssus gallinae, a common ectoparasite of laying chickens and pigeons; it also can feed on other birds, humans and domestic animals, causing clinical signs ranging from mild discomfort to severe dermatitis. Little is known about possible hypersensitivity to PRM or cross-sensitization with house dust or storage mites. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: Knowledge on possible PRM immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated allergy and possible cross-sensitization with house dust and storage mites may facilitate the clinical approach. The aim herein was to clarify possible evidence of type I hypersensitivity to PRM in dogs and possible occurrence of cross-sensitization with house dust and storage mites. ANIMALS: Sixteen dogs with chronic contact with PRM-infested chickens from traditional bird houses and 10 control dogs with no contact with birds. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Dogs were subjected to intradermal testing (IDT) and serum specific IgE (sIgE) determination for house dust and storage mites and D. gallinae. RESULTS: The highest wheal score was obtained with 0.1 mg/mL D. gallinae extract. Positive IDT reactions to PRM were found in four of 10 control dogs and in 10 of 16 from the chicken-exposed group. SIgE to PRM was detected in one control and in seven dogs exposed to chickens. No significant correlation was found between IDT or sIgE scores to PRM and house dust and storage mites. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Contact with PRM-infested chickens may lead to sensitization without allergy, independently from sensitization to house dust and storage mites.

Posicionamiento y actitudes de manejo sobre la profilaxis antifúngica en el paciente hematológico (proyecto PROMIC) / Consensus opinion on antifungal prophylaxis in haematologic patients: Results of the PROMIC project

Introducción. La enfermedad fúngica invasora (EFI) es una importante causa de morbimortalidad en pacientes hematológicos. La profilaxis antifúngica (PAF) está indicada en muchos episodios de este grupo de pacientes. El objetivo de este trabajo fue alcanzar un consenso sobre el abordaje profiláctico de las EFI en el paciente hematológico con el fin de optimizar su manejo. Métodos. Un comité de expertos en hematología y enfermedades infecciosas planteó un cuestionario de 79 ítems con aspectos controvertidos sobre la profilaxis antifúngica en el paciente hematológico. El cuestionario fue evaluado en dos rondas por un panel de expertos siguiendo una metodología Delphi modificada. Resultados. El cuestionario fue respondido por 44 expertos en hematología y enfermedades infecciosas. Tras dos rondas de evaluación se consensuaron 48 ítems en el acuerdo (60,7%) y 19 en el desacuerdo (24%) por lo que hubo consenso en 67 de los 79 ítems planteados (84,8%). Se consensuaron los perfiles de pacientes candidatos a profilaxis y se dilucidaron cuestiones relacionadas con indicaciones, mecanismos de acción, espectro de actividad, toxicidad e interacciones de los antifúngicos. Se analizó particularmente la utilidad de micafungina como profilaxis de EFI. Se consensuó que micafungina es un antifúngico a considerar en este contexto. Puede presentar ventajas sobre otros antifúngicos por su seguridad y menor potencial de interacciones. Conclusiones. Se encontró un alto nivel de consenso en el manejo de la profilaxis de la EFI en el paciente hematológico. Este consenso ofrece indicaciones prácticas sobre su manejo óptimo y puede ayudar a determinar el perfil de los pacientes idóneos a recibir este tipo de intervención (AU)

Introduction. Invasive fungal disease (IFD) is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in haematological patients. Antifungal prophylaxis (AFP) is indicated for a number of clinical scenarios in this group of patients. The aim of this study was to reach a consensus on IFD prophylaxis in haematological patients in order to optimize their management. Methods. A committee of experts in haematology and infectious diseases compiled a survey of 79 items with controversial aspects about antifungal prophylaxis in haematological patients. The survey was evaluated in two rounds by a panel of experts following a modified Delphi methodology. Results. Forty-four experts in haematology and infectious diseases answered the survey. After two evaluation rounds, consensus was reached in 67 of the 79 items (84.8%), specifically 48 items were consensually agreed on (60.7%) and 19 were disagreed on (24.0%). Consensus was reached on prophylaxis candidates profiles and questions related to indications, mechanisms of action, spectrum of activity, toxicity and interactions of antifungal were elucidated. The usefulness of micafungin in IFD prophylaxis was particularly analysed. The consensus reached was that micafungin is an antifungal to be considered in this context as its safety profile and lower interaction potential may be advantageous. Conclusions. A broad consensus was found in the management of IFD prophylaxis in the haematological patient. This consensus provides practical indications about its optimal management and can help determine the profile of patients eligible for this type of intervention (AU)

Effects of sphingolipid extracts on the morphological structure and lipid profile in an in vitro model of canine skin.

Ceramides (CER) are essential sphingolipids of the stratum corneum (SC) that play an important role in maintaining cutaneous barrier function. Skin barrier defects occur in both human beings and dogs affected with atopic dermatitis, and have been associated with decreased CER concentrations and morphological alterations in the SC. The aim of the present study was to investigate the changes induced by three different sphingolipid extracts (SPE-1, SPE-2 and SPE-3) on the morphological structure and lipid composition of canine skin, using an in vitro model, whereby keratinocytes were seeded onto fibroblast-embedded collagen type I matrix at the air-liquid interface. Cell cultures were supplemented with SPE-1, SPE-2, SPE-3 or vehicle (control) for 14 days. The relative concentrations of lipids were determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The ultrastructural morphology of samples was examined by transmission electron microscopy. SPE-1 induced significant elevation in total CERs, CER[NS], CER[NDS], CER[NP], CER[AS], CER[AP], CER[EOS] and CER[EOP] subclasses, whereas SPE-2 induced a significant elevation in total CER, CER[AP] and CER[EOS] compared with control conditions. Ultrastructural analysis revealed an increase in lamellar-lipid structures in the SC of SPE-1-treated samples. The findings demonstrated that SPE-1 stimulates production of CERs, as shown by changes in lipid composition and ultrastructural morphology. Thus, SPE-1 contributes to the formation of a well-organised SC and represents a potential therapeutic target for improving skin barrier function in atopic dermatitis.

Cost-effectiveness Analysis of Rivaroxaban versus Acenocoumarol in the Prevention of Stroke in Patients with Non-valvular Atrial Fibrillation in Spain.

Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate, from the Spanish National Health System perspective, the cost-effectiveness of rivaroxaban (20 mg/day) versus use of acenocoumarol (5 mg/day) for the treatment of patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) at moderate to high risk for stroke. Methods: A Markov model was designed and populated with local cost estimates, efficacy and safety of rivaroxaban in stroke prevention in NVAF compared with adjusted-dose warfarin clinical results from the pivotal phase III ROCKET AF trial and utility values obtained from the literature. Warfarin and acenocoumarol were assumed to have therapeutic equivalence. Results: Rivaroxaban treatment was associated with fewer ischemic strokes and systemic embolisms (0.289 vs. 0.300 events), intracranial bleeds (0.051 vs. 0.067), and myocardial infarctions (0.088 vs. 0.102) per patient compared with acenocoumarol. Over a lifetime time horizon, rivaroxaban led to a reduction of 0.041 life-threatening events per patient, and increases of 0.103 life-years and 0.155 quality-adjusted lifeyears (QALYs) versus acenocoumarol treatment. This resulted in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of €7045 per QALY and €10 602 per life-year gained. Sensitivity analysis indicated that these results were robust and that rivaroxaban is cost-effective compared with acenocoumarol in 89.4% of cases should a willingness-to-pay threshold of €30 000/QALY gained be considered. Conclusions: The present analysis suggests that rivaroxaban is a cost-effective alternative to acenocoumarol therapy for the prevention of stroke and systemic embolisms in patients with NVAF in the Spanish healthcare setting.

The anti-inflammatory mediator palmitoylethanolamide enhances the levels of 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol and potentiates its actions at TRPV1 cation channels.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is an endogenous congener of anandamide and potentiates its actions at cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, and at transient receptor potential vanilloid type-1 (TRPV1) channels. The other endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), was recently suggested to act as a TRPV1 channel agonist. We investigated if PEA enhanced levels of 2-AG in vitro or in vivo and 2-AG activity at TRPV1 channels. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Endogenous lipid levels were measured by LC-MS in (i) human keratinocytes incubated with PEA (10-20 µM, 40 min, 6 and 24 h, 37°C); (ii) the blood of spontaneously Ascaris suum hypersensitive beagle dogs given a single oral dose of ultramicronized PEA (30 mg·kg(-1), 1, 2, 4 and 8 h from administration); (iii) the blood of healthy volunteers given a single oral dose of micronized PEA (300 mg, 2, 4 and 6 h from administration). Effects of 2-AG at TRPV1 channels were assessed by measuring intracellular Ca(2+) in HEK-293 cells over-expressing human TRPV1 channels. KEY RESULTS: PEA elevated 2-AG levels in keratinocytes (∼3-fold) and in human and canine plasma (∼2 and ∼20-fold respectively). 2-AG dose-dependently raised intracellular Ca(2+) in HEK-293-TRPV1 cells in a TRPV1-dependent manner and desensitized the cells to capsaicin. PEA only slightly enhanced 2-AG activation of TRPV1 channels, but significantly increased 2-AG-induced TRPV1 desensitization to capsaicin (IC50 from 0.75 ± 0.04 to 0.45 ± 0.02 µM, with PEA 2 µM). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: These observations may explain why several effects of PEA are attenuated by cannabinoid receptor or TRPV1 channel antagonists. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Endocannabinoids. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v173.7/issuetoc.

Development and characterization of an equine skin-equivalent model.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing interest in the biological and pathological study of equine skin owing to the high prevalence of cutaneous diseases in horses. However, knowledge of equine skin cell biology and cultures is limited by the low number of in vitro studies in the literature. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: The objective of the study was to develop and characterize an in vitro equine skin equivalent. METHODS: Cultures of pure equine keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts were obtained by enzymatic digestion of skin biopsies. Fibroblasts were embedded into type I collagen matrices to obtain dermal scaffolds, the surface of which was seeded with keratinocytes. The three-dimensional cultures were exposed to the air-liquid interface to enable epidermal stratification. RESULTS: After 14 days in air-exposed conditions, histological analysis showed that keratinocytes underwent differentiation into a multilayered epidermis. Immunohistochemical studies revealed the expression of epidermal cytokeratin in keratinocytes, whereas vimentin was expressed in dermal fibroblasts, as expected in equine skin. Immunostaining of Ki67 showed proliferative keratinocytes in the stratum basale. A continuous basement membrane at the dermo-epidermal junction was also detected immunohistochemically through the expression of its major components (type IV collagen and laminin 5). Ultrastructural analysis by electron microscopy showed desmosomes located among keratinocytes in all layers and hemidesmosomes among the basal keratinocytes and lamina densa. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: This study reports, for the first time, the development of an in vitro equine skin-equivalent model that resembles equine skin morphologically, immunohistochemically and ultrastructurally.

Inhibitory effect of topical adelmidrol on antigen-induced skin wheal and mast cell behavior in a canine model of allergic dermatitis.

BACKGROUND: Adelmidrol is a semisynthetic derivative of azelaic acid and analogue of the anti-inflammatory compound palmitoylethanolamide (PEA). Based upon its physicochemical properties, adelmidrol is suitable for topical application. The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy of a topical adelmidrol emulsion on early and late inflammatory responses in hypersensitive dogs. Repeated intradermal injections of Ascaris suum extract were performed in both lateral thoracic areas of six conscious hypersensitive Beagle dogs, topically treated during 8 consecutive days. Adelmidrol (2%) was applied to one side and vehicle to the other. 24 hours after the last antigen challenge, two biopsies (adelmidrol- and vehicle-treated side) were obtained for each dog at the antigen injection site. RESULTS: A significant reduction in the antigen-induced wheal areas was observed on the 4th and 7th day of adelmidrol treatment. Moreover, cutaneous mast cell numbers were significantly decreased in biopsies obtained after 8 consecutive days of topical adelmidrol treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The results obtained in the present study show that topical treatment with adelmidrol might represent a new therapeutic tool in controlling the early and late allergic inflammatory skin responses in companion animals.

Effects of palmitoylethanolamide on the cutaneous allergic inflammatory response in Ascaris hypersensitive Beagle dogs.

Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is an endogenous lipid mediator with anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperalgesic properties. The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of PEA on the cutaneous allergic inflammatory reaction induced by different immunological and non-immunological stimuli in hypersensitive dogs. Six spontaneously Ascaris hypersensitive Beagle dogs were challenged with intradermal injections of Ascaris suum extract, substance P and anti-canine IgE, before and after a single oral administration of PEA at doses of 3, 10 and 30 mg/kg. A significant reduction in wheal area induced by both antigen and anti-canine IgE challenge was observed after PEA administration. No significant differences were observed between the two higher doses studied, suggesting that the 10 mg/kg dose had exerted the maximum inhibitory effect. When blood levels of PEA were compared with the effects at different times, an evident correlation was obtained. However, the anti-inflammatory effects of PEA were more long-lasting than their plasma concentrations. The intradermal injection of substance P did not reveal any skin reaction (wheal or erythema formation) at any of the concentrations tested. In conclusion, PEA might constitute a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of allergic inflammatory skin diseases in companion animals.

Risk factors for bloodstream infections caused by extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

UNLABELLED: The objective of this study was to identify risk factors for bacteremia by extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Retrospective case-control study performed in a 450-bed acute care academic tertiary hospital in Barcelona, Spain. Cases included 53 patients with ESBL-producing E. coli or K. pneumoniae bacteremia, and 159 controls with non-ESBL-producing E. coli or K. pneumoniae bacteremia. Controls were matched in a 3:1 ratio to case patients according to species of infecting organism, age, and severity of illness in the 24-48 h before blood sample collection for culture calculated by the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS II) system. Previous antimicrobials were more frequently administered to cases than to controls (56.5% vs 17%, p < 0.001). Binary logistic regression showed that the number (> 2) of different families of antimicrobials received within 90 days before bloodstream infection was the only predictor of ESBL-producing E. coli or K. pneumoniae in blood culture (OR = 2.29, 95% CI 1.35-3.88, p = 0.002). CONCLUSION: Previous use of different families of antimicrobials (more than two) in patients with bloodstream infection caused by E. coli or K. pneumoniae increased the risk for ESBL-producing strains.

Risk factors for bloodstream infections caused by extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae

The objective of this study was to identify risk factors for bacteremia by extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Retrospective case-control study performed in a 450-bed acute care academic tertiary hospital in Barcelona, Spain. Cases included 53 patients with ESBL-producing E. coli or K. pneumoniae bacteremia, and 159 controls with non-ESBL-producing E. coli or K. pneumoniae bacteremia. Controls were matched in a 3:1 ratio to case patients according to species of infecting organism, age, and severity of illness in the 24-48h before blood sample collection for culture calculated by the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS II) system. Previous antimicrobials were more frequently administered to cases than to controls (56.5 percent vs 17 percent, p < 0.001). Binary logistic regression showed that the number (> 2) of different families of antimicrobials received within 90 days before bloodstream infection was the only predictor of ESBL-producing E. coli or K. pneumoniae in blood culture (OR = 2.29, 95 percent CI 1.35-3.88, p = 0.002). Conclusion: Previous use of different families of antimicrobials (more than two) in patients with bloodstream infection caused by E. coli or K. pneumoniae increased the risk for ESBL-producing strains.

Increased HAS2-driven hyaluronic acid synthesis in shar-pei dogs with hereditary cutaneous hyaluronosis (mucinosis).

The Chinese shar-pei dog is known for its distinctive feature of wrinkled and thickened skin, defined as primary or hereditary cutaneous mucinosis. In a recent report, we identified the mucinous material deposited in the shar-pei skin as the polysaccharide hyaluronan (HA). In the present work, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying this phenotype have been identified in dermal fibroblasts isolated from shar-pei dogs. The production of HA, which appeared to be mainly associated with cell membrane protrusions and also intracellular, was higher in shar-pei fibroblasts than in control cells. The HA accumulation is related to a higher mRNA expression of the isoform HAS2 of the HA-synthesizing enzyme family, hyaluronan synthases (HAS). The higher expression of HAS2 in shar-pei fibroblasts was confirmed at the protein level. The other HAS isoenzymes, HAS1 and HAS3, and the HA-degrading enzymes, Hyal1 and Hyal2, were not differentially expressed in shar-pei fibroblasts compared with cells from control dogs. Fibroblasts from shar-pei dogs and from control dogs are morphologically different as observed by transmission electron microscopy. Scanning electron microscopy revealed a large number of cellular protrusions with associated globular deposits. Electron microscopy after labelling with biotinylated HA-binding protein confirmed an increased HA content in shar-pei fibroblasts, which could be localized in several subcellular structures. The authors propose the name hereditary cutaneous hyaluronosis (HCH) for affected dogs, because it better defines the cutaneous mucinosis of shar-pei dogs.

[Differential pharmacokinetic characteristics of micafungin. Experience in special populations]. / Características farmacocinéticas diferenciales de micafungina. Experiencia en poblaciones especiales.

Currently, three echinocandins are available for the treatment of fungal infections. Micafungin is the latest drug to be incorporated into this group of antifungal agents. Although the mechanism of action of micafungin is similar to that of other echinocandins, this molecule has certain pharmacokinetic characteristics that distinguish it from other drugs in this group. Nowadays, there is wide information on the pharmacokinetic behavior of micafungin, mainly from patients included in clinical trials. However, there is far less knowledge of the pharmacokinetics of this echinocandin in special populations. The aim of the current review was to analyze the available information on the pharmacokinetics of micafungin in pediatric patients, the elderly, patients with renal insufficiency or liver failure, and transplant recipient.